Ear

Pinna- yellow elastic cartilage except lobule
Cartilage covered with skin: tightly on lateral side, loosely on medial side
Incisura terminalis- deficiency of cartilage between tragus and crus of helix-used for endaural approach in surgeries of meatus or mastoid
Conchal cartilage- graft for correction of depressed nasal bridge
Pinna with skin- for repairing defects of nasal ala
Graft material for reconstructive surgery of middle ear: Cartilage of tragus, perichondrium of tragus/concha, fat from lobule

Length of external auditory canal- 24mm

Outer 1/3rd (8mm)- cartilage
Fissures of santorini-2 in number-risk of parotid infection to & fro
skin contains hair follicles,ceruminous glands & pilosebaceous glands: hence thick in cartilagenous part-risk of staphylococcal infection of hair follicles

Inner 2/3rd (16mm)- bony
skin lining- thin-no gland, no hair
isthmus- 6cm lateral to tympanic membrane-risk of impaction of foreign body medial to isthmus
Anterior recess- anteroinferior part of the deep meatus- beyond isthmus- cesspool of discharge & debris in case of external & middle ear infections
Foramen of Huschke- deficiency in anteroinferior part of bony meatus- seen upto 4yrs of age- may persist in adults too.

Tympanic Membrane: 9-10 mm tall, 8-9 mm wide, .1mm thick
Posterosuperior part more lateral than anteroinferior part

Pars tensa- most of TM
-peripheri  thickened to form a fibrocartilaginous ring called as annulus tympanicus, which fits in the tympanic sulcus.
central part tented inwards-umbo-at the tip of malleus
cone of light- anteroinferior part
shadow of round window is on the posterior part, behind the tip of malleus and below the shadow of incudo-stapedial joint

Pars Flaccida-
above lateral process of malleus; between the notch of Rivinus and the anterior and posterior malleal folds
slightly pinkish appearance
Fibrous layers in the pars flaccida is thin and not organised into various types of fibres as in pars tensa

Relations of external acoustic meatus:
superior-middle cranial fossa
posterior-mastoid air cells&facial nerve
inferior-parotid gland
anterior-temporomandibular joint
Posterosuperior part of deep meatus near the tympanic membrane is related to the mastoid antrum.
Sagging is seen during acute mastoiditis

Nerve supply to pinna,external auditory canal, TM:
1.Great auricular nerve-C2,3-most of medial surface & only posterior part of lateral surface
2.Lesser occipital nerve-C2-upper part of medial surface
3.Auriculotemporal nerve-V3-tragus,crus of helix & adjacent part of helix, anterior wall & roof of external auditory canal & anterior half of lateral surface of TM
4.Auricular branch of vagus(CN-X)(Arnold's Nerve) (also a sensory branch of CN-VII)- concha, corresponding eminence on medial surface, Posterior wall & floor of external auditory canal, posterior half of lateral surface
5.Tympanic branch of CN-IX (Jacobson's Nerve)- Medial surface of TM

Roof of middle ear- tegmen tympani (also forms the roof of aditus & antrum)
Floor-thin plate of bone- separates from jugular bulb- sometimes only mucosa separates middle ear from jugular bulb
Protympanum-portion of middle ear around the tympanic orifice of eustachian tube
Anterior wall- thin plate of bone separating middle ear from internal carotid artery-2 openings( eustachian tube & the upper one for the canal of tensor tympani muscle
Posterior wall contains pyramid- through the summit of which appears the tendon of stapedius
Aditus- an opening through which attic communicates with antrum-lies above pyramid

Facial nerve runs in the posterior wall just behind the pyramid.
Facial recess(posterior sinus)- a depression in the posterior wall lateral to the pyramid, bounded medially by the vertical part of VIIth nerve- laterally by the chorda tympani-above by the fossa incudis-surgically a direct access is made through it to the middle ear without disturbing the posterior meatal wall-intact canal wall technique

Medial wall: formed by the labyrinth
promontory-due to basal coil of cochlea
oval window into which fixed is the foot plate of the stapes- above oval window is the canal for facial nerve
Above facial canal is the prominence of lateral semicircular canal
Anterior to the oval window, the medial wall presents a hook like projection called the processus cochleariformis-the tendon of tensor tympani takes a turn here to get attachment to the neck of malleus
Processus cochleariformis is also marks the level of the genu of the facial nerve
round window/fenestra cochleae- covered by the secondary tympanic membrane
Medial to the pyramid- deep recess called sinus tympani-bounded by the subiculum below & ponticulus above

Lateral wall-scutum-bony outer attic wall-surrounding the TM

Mastoid Antrum:
Large, air containing space in the upper part of the mastoid-communicates with the attic through the aditus
roof-tegmen antri-continuation of tegmen tympani
lateral wall thickness in adult-1.5cm-marked externally on the surface of mastoid by suprameatal triangle( McEwen's Triangle)

Aditus ad Antrum:
Aditus-opening through the attic communicates with the antrum
The bony prominence of the horizontal canal lies on its medial side, fossa incudis(attached the short process of incus)-lies laterally.Facial nerve courses just below aditus

Mastoid air cell system:

Cellular/pneumatized-mastoid cells well developed-septa thin
Diploetic-Mastoid consists of marrow spaces & a few air cells
Sclerotic/acellular-no cells/marrow spaces-antrum small-sigmoid sinus antepositioned

location wise,
1.zygomatic cells-in the root of zygome
2.tegmen cells-extending in tegmen tympani
3.perisinus cells-overlying sinus plate
4.retrofacial-round the facial nerve
5.perilabyrinthine- above,below&behind the labyrinth,some of them passing through the arch of superior semicircular canal-may communicate with petrous apex
6.peritubal-around the eustachian tube-along with hypotympanic cells, they also communicate with petrous apex
7.tip cells-quite large, lie medial & lateral to the digastric ridge in the tip of mastoid
8.marginal cells-lying behind the sinus plate & may extend into the occipital bone
9.squamosal cells-superficial-lie in squamous part of temporal bones

Pelvis

Bony Pelvis

From the superior view of the pelvis, you should be able to identify the following: iliac crest anterior superior iliac spine anterior inferior iliac spine acetabulum obturator foramen ischiopubic ramus pubic tubercle pectineal line of the pubis pubic crest pubic symphysis pelvic brim (separates the true from the false pelvis) iliac fossa sacral promontory sacrum anterior sacral foramen ala of sacrum coccyx ischial spine

The pelvic brim extends from promontory of the sacrum, arcuate line of the ilium, pectineal line (pectin of pubis) and pubic crest. Some people divide the pelvis into a greater (or false) pelvis and lesser (or true) pelvis. They are separated by using the pelvic brim as the limiting line. The greater pelvis is located above the pelvic brim and the lesser pelvis below the brim.

No muscle crosses the pelvic brim. If they did, they would be in the way during childbirth.

Turn the pelvis over and identify the structures on the back: sacrum posterior sacral foramen coccyx posterior superior iliac spine iliac crest anterior superior iliac spine tubercle of the crest ischial tuberosity acetabulum ischiopubic ramus pubic symphysis obturator foramen ischial spine greater sciatic notch lesser sciatic notch

From the lateral view, identify the: sacrum posterior superior iliac spine iliac crest tubercle of the crest anterior superior iliac spine anterior inferior iliac spine pubic tubercle inferior pubic ramus superior pubic ramus ischial tuberosity greater sciatic notch ischial spine lesser sciatic notch obturator foramen (not labeled)

In this image, the pelvis is shown as it would be in the erect posture. The anterior superior iliac spine and pubic tubercle are in the same vertical plane. Looking at the pelvis from the inside, you should be able to identify the following items: anterior superior iliac spine anterior inferior iliac spine pectineal line of pubis pubic tubercle pubic symphysis obturator foramen ischial tuberosity lesser sciatic notch ischial spine greater sciatic notch articulation of sacrum posterior superior iliac spine iliac fossa pelvic brim - not labeled

Ligaments of the Pelvis

Strong ligaments are necessary to hold the hip bone to the sacrum. These are found anteriorly and posteriorly. Anteriorly, you can identify the anterior sacroiliac ligaments. Posteriorly, there are even stronger ligaments: sacrotuberous sacrospinous posterior sacroiliac The fifth lumbar vertebra also has a strong tie-in with the ilium through the iliolumbar ligament.

The sacrotuberous and sacrospinous ligamentscomplete the greater and lesser sciatic foraminae.

Viewof Pelvic Structures on Sagittal Section

The best way to get a good idea of how the structures of the male and female pelvis are arranged is to view them on a sagittal section. That way you can see the way the different midline structures relate to one another.

Male Pelvis

This is the male pelvis as seen on sagittal section. Along with this image is a small image of the pelvic skeleton seen from the midline. You should always find something easy to identify so that you can tell where the front and back of the diagram are. I usually start by looking for the pubic symphysis for the front and sacrum for the back. Starting from the pubic symphysis, work your way back and identify the following structures: pubic symphysis retropubic space pubovesical and puboprostatic ligaments urinary bladder prostate urethra rectovesical space rectum presacral space Note that, in the small diagram, two lines have been drawn. One from the sacral promontory to the upper pubic symphysis represents the pelvic inlet. Above this line is the false (or greater) pelvis and the abdominal cavity. The second line (2) extends from the coccyx to the lower border of the pubic symphysis and represents the pelvic outlet. Below this line is the region called the perineum. Between the two lines is the true (or lesser) pelvis. This is the area we are interested in for now.

Female Pelvis

In the sagittal section of the female pelvis, identify the following items, staring again from the front: pubic symphysis retropubic space urinary bladder urethra uterus vagina rectouterine pouch of Douglas rectum presacral space Again the pelvic inlet and outlet is represented as two lines. You can see exactly what structures are within the lesser pelvis. Again, they are midline structures. Since, in both male and female, the organs are centrally located, that means that their blood and/or nerve supply must come in from laterally or posteriorly and we will find this to be true when we examine the vasculature of the pelvis. We will also note that most of the muscles found in the pelvis lie laterally. These midline structures are supported by a musculature pelvic diaphragm which we will discuss in a moment.

Muscles of the Pelvis

Muscles of the female pelvis are the: pelvic diaphragm pubococcygeus puborectalis iliococcygeus coccygeus piriformis iliacus psoas major

The male pelvic muscles are the same as the female except that there is no vagina to support in the male. Identify the following: pelvic diaphragm pubococcygeus puborectalis iliococcygeus coccygeus piriformis iliacus psoas major The puborectalis is actually a part of the pubococcygeus muscle that wraps around the posterior aspect of the rectum forming a sling that holds the rectum forward in the pelvis. The pubococcygeus and iliococcygeus muscles make up the levator ani. The muscles of the levator ani are important supportive muscles for the midline organs of the pelvis. Any weakness in these muscles can cause clinical problems of urinary or fecal incontinence.

Arteries of the Pelvis

With one exception, the arteries of the pelvis are branches of the internal iliac artery. The exception is the superior rectal artery which is a branch of the inferior mesenteric artery. Starting posteriorly, the branches of the internal iliac artery are as follows: iliolumbar superior gluteal lateral sacral inferior gluteal internal pudendal middle rectal inferior vescical (the uterine in the female) obturator superior vesical terminal part of the internal iliac is occluded and becomes the lateral umbilical ligament of the lower anterior abdominal wall.

Nerves of the Pelvis

The nerves of the pelvis are derived from the: lumbosacral plexus inferior mesenteric plexus sympathetic chain The lumbosacral plexus is made up of: L4 L5 L4 and L5 merge to form the lumbosacral trunk S1 S2 S3 L4, L5, S1, S2, S3 forms the sciatic nerve and other combinations form the superior and inferior gluteal S4 S2, S3, S4 join to form the pudendal nerve that supplies structures in the perineum. The inferior mesenteric plexus starts out in the abdomen at the point of origin of the inferior mesenteric artery and passes along the aorta to the presacral region. As the plexus drops into the pelvis, it usually splits up into a right and left hypogastric plexus that lies behind the rectum. The sacral sympathetic chain is the continuation of the lumbar chain. The sacral part of the parasympathetic nervous system arises from S2, S3, S4 and supplies the pelvic structures as well as the left colic flexure, descending colon and sigmoid colon.

Urinary bladder

Compare the male and female bladders. Male bladder This image displays the male urinary bladder opened from the top and front and defining the: trigone of the bladder interureteric fold opening of the ureter uvula of the vesical (beginning of the urethra) urethral crest seminal colliculus opening of prostatic utricle prostatic sinus (opening of ejaculatory ducts enter here) membranous urethra ureter vas deferens Female bladder In the female bladder, identify: ureter interureteric fold opening of the ureters trigone internal opening of urethra vesical sphincter

Prostate Gland

The prostate gland is a cone-shaped gland about the size of a chestnut and is made up of connective tissue and smooth muscle. Parts of relations of the gland are: the base is cephalad against the neck of the bladder the apex is directed caudad against the urogenital diaphragm the posterior surface is separated from the rectum by the rectovesical septum the anterior surface is separated from the pubic symphysis by the the retropubic space, that is filled with a venous plexus the lateral surfaces face the levator ani and a venous plexus it is made up of 5 lobes two lateral lobes anterior lobe - in front of the prostatic urethra middle lobe - behind the prostatic urethra and between the two ejaculatory ducts posterior lobe If the prostate is opened up from the front, you can identify the following: urethral crest seminal colliculus - a slightly enlarged part of the urehtral crest which open the ejaculatory ducts and an embryonic remnant, the prostatic utricle. prostatic sinus - small valleys along side the crest into which the prostatic ducts open

Clinical Considerations

1. middle lobe: important clinically because enlargement of the mucous glands in this lobe leads to obstruction. Adenomas are frequent in this lobe and they encroach into the urethra, blocking the internal urethral orifice.
2. posterior lobe: adenomas are rare; this lobe can be felt on rectal examination
3. anterior lobe: adenomas are rare; there is not encroachment on the urethra when this lobe enlarges
4. lateral lobe: enlargement of lateral lobes can cause obstruction to the urethra

Uterus and Broad Ligament

The uterus is a midline organ and is held to the lateral walls of the true pelvis by a double layer of peritoneum, called the broad ligament. The broad ligament also encloses the uterine tube in its upper free border, the ovarian artery, the round ligament of the uterus, uterine artery, ovary, and the ovarian ligament. A better understanding of the relationships to the broad ligament can be gained if you also look at a section through the broad ligament. In the first image, you are looking at the posterior aspect of the broad ligament and the posterior wall of the vagina has been opened up. These items should be found in relation to the broad ligament. uterus uterine tube (oviduct, Fallopian tube) fimbriated end ovarian artery ovary ovarian ligament mesovarium mesosalpinx opening of cervix cervix vagina opening of urethra bladder In the section through the broad ligament pay attention to the: broad ligament uterine tube - in the upper free margin of the broad ligament and connected to the root of the mesovarium by the mesosalpinx ovary - attached to the posterior part of the broad ligament by the mesovarium ovarian ligament - in free margin of the mesovarium anterior layer of the broad ligament posterior layer of the broad ligament round ligament of the uterus - beneath the anterior layer of the broad ligament uterine artery - near the root of the broad ligament The ovary is also described as having a suspensory ligament but this is nothing more the a fold of peritoneum near where the ovarian artery and veins cross the pelvic brim to enter the true pelvis.

Rectum and Anal Canal

The rectum and anal canal are clinically important parts of the intestinal tract because, by either palpation or rectoscope or sigmoidoscope, they can be easily examined in a routine physical. Tumors, hemorrhoids or abscesses are frequent in this part of the GI tract. The rectum is the continuation of the sigmoid colon and at the point of their junction, the rectum becomes covered by peritoneum only on its anterior surface, and therefore becomes retroperitoneal. The rectum terminates approximately at the attachment of the levator ani to its borders. Also at this point, is the pectinate line which, anatomically, is the anorectal junction. The inside of the rectum is thrown into folds called rectal valves. These maintain the fecal material until water is removed and a bowel movement occurs. At that point the rectum elongates and the valves become less prominent. At the lower end of the rectum, a series of rectal columns encircle the rectum. Between the column are rectal sinuses. Outside of the columns is found the internal rectal plexus of veins. It is here that internal hemohhroids are found. At the junction of the rectum and anal canal, the columns and sinuses form a dentate orpectinate appearance. This is called the pectinate line and is the starting point of the anal canal which is about 2.5-4.0 cm long. The lining of the anal canal is continuous with the skin at the white line of Hilton (or intersphincteric line). This line can be felt with the finger as a small indentation between the internal anal sphincter (circular muscle of the rectal wall) and the subcutaneous external anal sphincter. The external anal sphincter is much stronger to the touch than the internal. Note that the external anal sphincter consists of three parts, the deep, superficial and subcutaneous.

Arteries to the rectum

There are three sources of arterial supply to the rectum and anus: superior rectal artery - from the inferior mesenteric artery middle rectal arteries - either directly from the internal iliac artery or from a common branch with the inferior vesical artery inferior rectal arteries - from the internal pudendal artery.

Veins of the Rectum and Anus

Surrounding the rectum and anus is a very dense rectal plexus of veins. The upper part of the plexus will send tributaries to form the superior rectal vein which then goes into the inferior mesenteric vein. From the middle part of the plexus, along with tributaries from the bladder, prostate and seminal vesicle pass to the internal iliac vein From the inferior part of the plexus, drainage is into the internal pudendal vein.

Lymphatic Drainage

From the rectum, lymphatics pass eventually into the inferior mesenteric group of preaortic lymph nodes. From the anal canal, lymphatics pass along the middle rectal artery to end in the internal iliac nodes and from these to the common iliac nodes and then to the lateral aortic group of nodes. From the anus, below the white line of Hilton, the lymphatics join those of the perineum and scrotum and pass into the superficial inguinal nodes

Clinical Considerations

• Internal hemorrhoids are found above the pectinate line and outside the rectal columns.
• external hemorrhoids are below the pectinate line and are the more common clinically and can be seen when enlarged.
• Both types of hemohhroids can be sources of bleeding when abraded. This type of bleeding is bright red compared to bleeding higher up in the GI tract where the blood is occult and must be identified by chemical tests.

Female Pelvis & Fetal diameters

A-P diameters

Inlet
true conjugate- 11 cms
obstetric conjugate- 10-10.5
diagonal conjugate- 12

Mid -11.5 cms
Outlet -11.5-13.5 cms

Oblique diameter @ inlet -12 cm

Transverse diameter

Inlet-13-13.5cms
Mid Pelvis-interspinous diameter-10cm
Outlet-intertuberous diameter-11cm

Ischial spine:
1.Plane of ischial spine-plane of least pelvic dimensions
2.Internal rotation
3.beginning of forward curve of pelvic axis
4.most cases of deep transverse arrest occur here
5.level of external os
6.represents zero station of fetal head
7.Corresponds to origin of levator ani
8.landmark of pudendal block
 9.ischial spine separates greater sciatic notch from lesser sciatic notch
10.external surface gives attachment to the Gemellus superior
11.internal surface gives attachment to the Coccygeus, Levator ani, and the pelvic fascia
12.pointed extremity the sacrospinous ligament is attached.


Pelvic inlet- sacral promontory,alae sacrum,linea terminalis (lateral), pubic symphysis(anteriorly)
Pelvic brim-promontory,arcuate line of ilium,pectineal lineof pubis, pubic crest

Posterior Saggital diameter-7.5cms
prognosis of vaginal delivery in case of narrowing of mid pelvis depends on it

Fetal diameters:

Transverse-Miss Tina So Pretty
Bimastoid-7.5cm
Bitemporal-8cm
Super subparietal-8.5cm
Biparietal-9.5cm


AP diameters

1. suboccipito-bregmatic -9.5cm- vertex-complete flexion
2.subccipito-frontal-10cm vertex-incomplete flexion
3.occipito-frontal-11.5cm vertex-marked deflexion
4.mento-vertical-14cm-partial extension
5.submento-vertical-11.5cm-incomplete extension
6.submento-bregmatic-9.5cm-complete extension

longest diameter of fetal skull-mentovertical-14cm
longest diameter of pelvis- transverse@inlet AP@anatomic outlet
shortest diameter of pelvis-posterior saggital@outlet
shortest diameter of inlet sacrocotyloid
longest AP diameter of inlet-diagonal conjugate
shortest AP diameter of inlet-obstetric conjugate
only AP diameter measured clinically diagonal conjugate